Improving International‑Level Chess Players' Performance with an Acceptance‑Based Protocol: Preliminary Findings

Complete Reference: Ruiz, F. J., & Luciano, C. (2012). Improving international-level chess players' performance with an acceptance-based protocol: Preliminary findings. The Psychological Record, 62(3), 447-462.

Study Type: Pilot study with matched-groups design (experimental vs. no-contact control)

Context and Objectives

Chess is widely considered the sport with the highest intellectual content, characterized by complex decision-making under severe time constraints. Previous research on psychological skills training (PST) in sports has yielded inconsistent results in performance enhancement. An emerging approach is Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), based on Relational Frame Theory, which emphasizes acceptance of private events (thoughts, emotions) rather than their control. The present study compares a brief ACT protocol versus a no-contact control condition in improving the performance of international chess players. Objectives include evaluating whether ACT reduces experiential avoidance and increases objective performance during 7-month follow-up competitions.

Method

Participants

Ten international-level chess players participated (5 experimental condition, 5 control). Inclusion criteria were: possession of International Master or Grandmaster title, required improvement of more than 40 ELO points in the previous 2 years, and similar characteristics across conditions (ranking, gender, average age 23-50 years). One control participant was excluded because their matched counterpart completed fewer than 30 games during the required follow-up period.

Design

Matched-groups design between conditions: five chess players were matched with five no-contact controls according to similar ELO characteristics, gender, age, ELO difference not exceeding 30 points, and tournament characteristics with similar geographic locations. ELO performance was obtained from FIDE's database for the 7 months before and after intervention.

Intervention or Conditions

Experimental condition: A 4-hour ACT protocol distributed across 2-3 sessions during a tournament. The protocol included: (1) selection of the five most frequent counterproductive reactions for each participant; (2) functional analysis of the first counterproductive reaction in the context of a valued trajectory; (3) cognitive defusion practice through multiple exercises, including the "man in the hole" metaphor and experiential exercises; (4) acceptance practice through exercises such as observing thoughts without attempting to change them and acknowledging uncertainty during play.

Control condition: No intervention, only ELO performance monitoring.

Measurement Instruments

• Acceptance and Commitment Questionnaire–II (AAQ-II): A measure of experiential avoidance (10 items, range 1-7). Mean preintervention scores: M = 22.23, SD = 9.85 (experimental sample).
• Chess Counterproductive Reactions Questionnaire (CCRQ): 15 items measuring frequency of counterproductive reactions during important competitions (Likert scale 1-9).
• Interference and believability questions: Evaluated the degree to which participants believed thoughts/feelings interfered with performance (scale 10-15 elements).
• ELO performance: Obtained from FIDE competitions in the 7 months before and after intervention.

Data Analysis

Simple linear regression analysis with single independent variable to explore change processes. Examined whether preintervention measures and early changes (3-month follow-up) predicted intervention effect sizes.

Results

ELO Performance

In pretreatment measures (7 months prior), participants in both conditions did not differ significantly in tournament ELO performance (control: M = 2,461.6, SD = 67.79; experimental: M = 2,431, SD = 96.96; p = .44). At 7-month follow-up after intervention, performance was statistically different, favoring the experimental condition (p = .03; control: M = 2,451.4, SD = 73.91; experimental: M = 2,501.4, SD = 73.21). All experimental participants improved performance during 7-month post-intervention follow-up (range of individual changes: d = .50 to d = 1.28; M = 1.42). In within-subject comparisons in the experimental condition only, all five participants showed statistically significant ELO performance improvements exceeding 40 points (preintervention criterion; range: 47, 45, 79, 45, 25 ELO points). Control participants showed no significant changes (number of games for P1-P5, respectively: 47, 36, 37, 43, 54).

Process Measures: AAQ-II

Preintervention AAQ-II scores for all except one participant were low (range: 19-48; M = 27.6, SD = 23.8). Only participant P5 showed a high preintervention score (48). At 6-month follow-up, AAQ-II scores changed, respectively, for P1-P5: 26 to 38 (15% reduction), 23 to 17 (48% reduction), 19 to 24 (increase), 22 to 34 (15% increase), 48 to 24 (50% reduction). Differences between preintervention and 6-month follow-up were statistically significant (preintervention: M = 27.6, SD = 25.2; 6-month follow-up: M = 25.2, SD = 15.62; t = –1.76, p = .04).

Counterproductive Reactions and Believability

Three of five participants met criteria for pre-post change in interference of private events during competitions at 6-month follow-up. Participants showed reductions in private events interference (interference score preintervention to 6 months: P1 from 69 to 38, P2 from 48 to 17, P3 from 47 to 45, P4 from 14 to 11, P5 from 57 to 60). Differences were statistically significant (preintervention: M = 41.8, SD = 23.39; 6-month follow-up: M = 23.39; t = –1.75, p = .04).

Discussion and Conclusions

Results show that a brief 4-hour ACT protocol was sufficient to reduce counterproductive reactions during chess competitions and improve performance of international chess players. Considering results of the present study and other recent studies on sports performance enhancement through ACT (e.g., Bernier et al., 2009), ACT emerges as a potential alternative to traditional PST interventions. Contrary to PST, ACT adopts a functional-analytic approach toward cognition, where participants respond more effectively to task demands rather than attempting to alter or control the content of private events. Main limitations include small sample size, non-random assignment to conditions, and no-contact control condition as the contrast. Future research should compare differential efficacy of brief ACT versus PST interventions in sport psychology.

Significance and Contribution

This study contributes to the field of sport psychology by demonstrating that a brief ACT protocol can be sufficient to reduce counterproductive reactions during chess competitions and significantly improve objective performance of international chess players during a 7-month follow-up period. Findings support brief interventions based on acceptance and psychological flexibility as a promising approach for optimizing human performance in cognitively demanding contexts. The research contributes to the evidence suggesting that changes in the functional relationship with negative private events can generate clinically significant improvements even in specialized areas of performance.